Organizing Info within Paragraphs and from One Paragraph to the Next

Read the following material on organization and transitions.  Apply David A. McMurrey's insights by 1) assessing whether your paper is organized in an effective manner, 2) reorganizing the "chunks" of information along more recognizable lines if necessary, and 3) providing effective transitions within and between the paragraphs throughout your paper.

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 Structure-Level Revision
By David A. McMurrey

If you have the right information in a report, at least you've got all the "right stuff" available for readers. However, it may still not be adequately organized. You need two essential skills for reviewing the organization of a rough draft:

• Identifying the topic of chunks of information at various levels. To assess the organization of a string of paragraphs, you start by thinking of a word or phrase to identify the topic of each paragraphs—in other words, get a handle on each one. Then you stand back from those words or phrases, considering whether they are in the right sequence. However, that's only one level. You can also look within an individual paragraph for its organization. In this case, you identify the topic of each sentence and consider the sequencing of those sentences.
• Choosing the best sequence for chunks of information. Once you know the topic of each of the chunks of information (at whatever level you are investigating), then you can decide whether they are in the right sequence. This decision involves knowing the common sequencing patterns; here are some examples:
  • General —> specific: One of the most common ways to organize is to arrange chunks of information from general to specific. For example, defining all solar collectors is a more general discussion than discussing the different types of solar collectors.
  • Simple, basic —> complex: Another way to arrange units of a discussion is to begin with the simple, basic, fundamental ones and then move on to the more complex and technical.
  • Spatial movement: If you are describing the physical details of something, you might want to use some pattern of physical movement, for example, top to bottom, left to right, or outside to inside.
  • Temporal movement: One of the most common patterns is based on movement through time; arrange the discussion of events in relation to the temporal sequence.
  • Concept —> application of the concept, examples: A common organizational pattern is to discuss a concept in general terms then discuss an application of it. 
  • Data —> conclusions: Another means of organizing information is to present data (observations, experimental data, survey results) then move on to the conclusions that can be drawn from that data. (And this pattern is sometimes reversed: present the conclusion first, then the data that supports it.)
  • Problem, question —> solution, answer: You can also organize information by first discussing a problem or raising a question then moving on to the solution or answer.
  • Simplified version—>detailed version: A useful way to explain technical matters to nonspecialists is to begin by discussing a simplified version of the thing, establish a solid understanding of it, then go right back and explain it all again but this time laying on the technical detail thick and heavy!
  • Most important —> least important: A more "rhetorical" method of organization is to begin with the most important, the most eye-catching, the most dramatic information first then move on to information that is progressively less so. (And this pattern can be reversed: you can build up to a climax, rather than start with it.)
  • Most convincing —> least convincing: Similarly, you can start with the most convincing argument for your position—to get everybody's attention—then move on to less and less convincing ones. (This pattern can also be reversed: you can build up to your most convincing arguments.)

These are just a few possibilities. When the aim is informative, you arrange information so that you ensure that readers understand the basics before moving onto the complicated, technical stuff. When the aim is persuasive, you arrange things to maximize the persuasive effect on the readers, for example, by putting the strongest arguments first or last.  And in any case, you avoid mixing these approaches—for example, throwing out some data, then stating a few conclusions, and then doing this back and forth in a haphazard way. Keep the apples separate from the oranges!

You can have the right information in a report and have it organized properly, but something important can still go wrong. Readers can miss the "flow" of the ideas, have a hard time sensing how the chunks of information are related or connected to each other. What readers need is continuous guidance.  And what you use to provide that guidance is called transitions— various devices that help readers along through a document. There is (or certainly should be) a logic that connects every sentence in a document and that dictates a certain sequence to those sentences.

Your sense of that logic enables you to put the various chunks of information in a report in the proper order. However, readers may have trouble at times seeing that logic. Transitions emphasize that logic. Usually, as writers, we almost unconsciously supply the transitional devices that guide readers along. But sometimes we forget, or sometimes a connection that seems obvious to us is hard for readers to see. Then we need to work particularly hard to make the connection apparent.

Once you've identified problem points in your rough draft where better transitions are needed, the next step is to analyze each problem point and find the transition that will improve the connection. To do this, you need to understand something about how transitions operate and what choices you have among them. First, in principle, a transition is a signal that shows how a preceding chunk of information is logically related to a current or upcoming chunk of information. It looks backwards and looks forward at the same time.

People who have studied the way communication, in particular, writing, works have identified these kinds of basic logic that knit ideas together:

• Additive—One idea can be added to another; information can simply be added to other information within a paragraph. Additive transitional words and phrases include and, moreover, as well as, too, in addition to, furthermore, also, and additionally.
• Narrative, chronological, temporal—One idea can follow, precede, or occur simultaneously with another. Narrative transitional words and phrases include then, next, after, before, since, subsequently, following, later, as soon as, as, when, while, during, until, and once.
• Contrastive, comparative—Two ideas can be compared to each other to show differences or similarities. Contrastive transitional words and phrases include but, on the other hand, unlike, as opposed to, than, although, though, instead, and similarly.
• Alternative—Two ideas can act as alternatives or substitutes for each other. Alternative transitional words and phrases include either, or, nor, on the other hand, however, neither, and otherwise.
• Causal—One idea can be the cause or the result (effect, consequence, etc.) of another. Causal transitional words and phrases include thus, then, unless, subsequently, therefore, because, consequently, as a result, if, in order to/that, for, and so.
• Illustrative—One idea can be an example or an illustration of another. Illustrative transitional words and phrases include for example, for instance, to illustrate, and as an example.
• Repetitive, reiterative—To ensure clarity, an idea can be restated or repeated using other, perhaps more familiar, words. Repetitive transitional words and phrases include in other words, in short, that is, stated simply, and to put it another way.
• Spatial, physical—The things referred to by one statement can have a spatial relationship to another thing referred to by another statement. The logic connecting the two statements can be spatial in nature. Typically, prepositions indicate such logic: for example, under, beside, on top of, next to, behind, and so on.

It takes a surprising amount of brain power to construct a transition: you must know the topic of the preceding chunk of information, the topic of the current or upcoming one, the logic that connects them. Then, with that in mind, you must pick out the transitional device that you think will best guide the reader across that juncture between the two chunks of information. Scholars have identified a half-dozen or so kinds of transitional devices (but it seems like there ought to be more...):

• Transitional words—The easiest to spot are words like "but," "however," "on the other hand," "therefore," "for example," "in other word," "in addition," and so on. These specifically mark the logic as contrastive, alternative, causal, illustrative, additive, and so on, which we looked at in the preceding section.
• Pronouns—Pronouns do the same thing as repeated key words, only more efficiently. Of course, the risk you run with pronouns is that readers won't be able to figure out what the pronoun refers to. Pronouns like "it," "this," "which," "that," "they," "them," and the like are vulnerable to this problem. When this happens, the summary transition can help strengthen the transition.
• Summary transitions—At key points in writing, particularly at the beginning of paragraphs or sections, you'll see a phrase, sometimes accompanied by a pronoun, that summarizes the preceding discussion. In the same sentence, a statement will be made about that summary phrase—typically this phrase will kick off the upcoming discussion, and do so in a way that the reader sees the connection between what came before and what is coming next.  (See Marylynne's page on these types of transitions)
• Review-preview transitions—The most powerful transitional device you can use is the type that summarizes the topic of the preceding chunk of information into a short phrase, does the same thing for the upcoming chunk of information, finds the appropriate transitional word, and then throws all these elements together into a sentence or two. You'd use this device at those major bridge points in reports, between large chunks of information—for example, between one 7-page section and a 9-page section that follows it. (See Marylynne's page on these types of transitions)

This information is provided by David A. McMurrey. For information on use,  customization, or copies, e-mail hcexres@io.com.

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